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The Print in Italy 1550–1620
‘The Print in Italy 1550–1620’
at the British Museum (27 September 2001–6 January 2002) is
an exceptional exhibition of over 150 works from the museum’s
own collection as well as a number of important loans. It is the
first exhibition to present a broad and representative survey of
the printmaking of this period.
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| Detail of feet. Odoardo Fialetti 1573–1637/8 |
The exhibition is divided into three sections. The actual
processes of printmaking are examined from the manner in which designs
were conceived and transferred onto the prepared plates and then
printed and packaged for sale. In the second part of the exhibition
the group of individuals involved: designers, engravers, printers
and print dealers are presented. The third section focuses on the
cities of importance for printmaking: Rome and Venice; Bologna and
Siena.
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| Roast-chestnut seller. Francesco
Villamena 1565–1624 |
The scale of prints in the exhibition is of significant note since
the period 1550–1620 saw the development of large-scale commercial
prints. This scale of production is also evident in the marvellous
range of skills and subject matter portrayed.
The scholarly presentation of this exhibition and the superb catalogue
are exceptional, and enable one to study the period in depth.
A great deal of information can often be extracted from what
is inscribed on the plates themselves. There are also documentary
materials that can illuminate the methods and motivations behind
the production of prints: letters, contracts, payments, official
edicts, records of court cases, privileges and licenses as well
as more formal writing of a systematic kind, such as biographies
and treatises. Where possible the prints chosen have been ones
for which such supporting information is available.1
Michael Bury’s catalogue clarifies certain problematic concepts
in the literature on printmaking. One is that of the ‘reproductive’
print:
In clarifying prints as either ‘original’ or ‘reproductive’,
present-day writers are making a distinction between those in
which the composition is the original creation of the printmaker
and those in which the composition is taken by the printmaker
from another source.2
Bury distinguishes between the manner in which certain engravers’
or printmakers’ value lay exclusively in the accuracy of the
rendition compared to an existing artist’s work, and an artist
like Cornelis Cort who worked in close collaboration with the artists
(for example, Titian) whose work he was ‘reproducing’.
The word ‘reproduction’ implies mechanical copying,
but often what was going on was a highly creative attempt to find
an equivalent and to create a graphic object that was of value
in its own right.3
Printmaking enjoyed an increased appreciation in the second half
of the 16th century; Vasari’s 1568 edition of his Lives
of the Artists introduced a discussion of prints and printmakers
where he established a framework for them to be discussed. The collection
of prints also became a phenomenon. As the exhibition displays,
the range of subject matter was wide-ranging: mythological and devotional
images, maps, allegorie, erotica, records of antiquities, and ‘low-life’
depictions of street brawls and the tradesmen and artisans. ‘The
Roast Chestnut Seller’ by Francesco Villamena (c. 1565–1624)
belongs to this tradition that takes as its subject street sellers
and carnival characters. Here, Villamena portrays his character,
not in a particularly humane manner but as a grotesque individual;
in the verse below the figure it states that the ‘Chestnut
Seller’s’ voice is so loud that it would make hell
shake. It is intended to be humorous. Prints were often sold at
fairs, collected in albums, framed on walls in houses. In short,
they became a visual currency with a wide audience. Writers and
collectors showed unprecedented interest in the variety and creative
enterprise.
Bury documents the roles and relationships of the individuals involved
in the production of these prints – designers, publishers,
artist/printmakers – and how the various circumstances determined
how the production of works at different points came into existence.
The term publisher is clarified by Bury not as in the modern usage:
The publisher will be identified here not as the person performing
a functional role in relation to the issue of a specific print,
that is to say, financing the issue of the print and controlling
the plate. That person could be the designer, the engraver, the
printer, the print dealer or anyone who had an interest in having
the print available for whatever purpose. Not infrequently it
was a group of people rather than a single individual.4
The co-operative nature of print production, in this and subsequent
periods, lends itself to providing an insight into the structure
of society and broader issues involved in art production. So too
does it illuminate issues of working methods – the introduction
of the important position of technical assistant – both of
a single artist/printmaker and a print workshop. It reveals the
technical proficiency and the ability to solve visual problems,
for example, the fact that an engraved or etched image is by its
nature a mirror image. In many images the mirror image was acceptable
– even preferred – in others such as Cort’s ‘Marriage
at Cana’ (c. 1533–78) it was necessary for the image to
be the right way round, since in any images of Christ making a blessing
the gesture could not be performed with his left hand. There existed
a number of technically demanding methods for reversing the image.
A technical assistant was used to achieve mastery in ambitious or
difficult works. ‘The Practice of the Visual Arts’ by
Jan van de Straet, called Stradanus (1523–1605) is a drawing
that was clearly the design for an engraving that was subsequently
produced by Cornelis Cort, also in the exhibition. The drawing is
virtually the identical in size to the engraving, and all the figures
are using their left hands, so displaying the artist’s intention
to transfer the image onto an engraving plate.
In the drawing the creamy paper acts as a mid-tone, with different
colours of ink/wash to give gradations of dark and white heightening
for the highlights. Cort is able to create a comparably rich pictorial
effect, although he has to alter the register, with the white
of the paper now functioning as highlight.5
Stradanus was particularly interested in making designs specifically
for an engraver to adapt. He seemed to work successfully with Cort
who appeared to have been able to make certain alterations of his
own. Cort is a particularly good example of a printmaker who could
transfer the work of an artist into a graphic medium which paid
tribute to the original while imbuing the print medium with a certain
life of its own.
If the designer did not take up printmaking himself, he might
employ a printmaker to work under his direction. The relationship
that Titian established with Cort was of this kind, and produced
some of the finest engravings of the century. Titian took the
initiative and employed Cort, providing him with drawings of a
carefully selected group of compositions to illustrate the range
of his invention…Even when the compositions were derived
from, or closely related to, compositions that Titian had used
for paintings, they were adjusted to fit the demands of the graphic
medium.6
Cort’s ‘Crucifixion’ involved the designer Guilio
Clovio (1498–1578) at a further stage; that of the illuminator
of the print once his original image had been engraved and printed
by Cort. It was printed on a blue-grey silk and mounted on paper.
Once coloured by Clovio, ‘the engraving was transformed into
an exquisite ‘unicum’.7
Engravings also played an important role in the teaching of drawing
and anatomy. Taken from a drawing manual, the ‘Details of Feet’
by Odoardo Fialetti (1573–1637/8) offers basic instruction,
primarily for ‘gentlemen amateurs’ in Venice. Erotic images
were produced from the 15th century on. They were prone to destruction
by moral forces, and so very few survive. Biblical or mythological
subjects were chosen sometimes to justify an erotic motivation,
and in turn they were not as likely to be destroyed. Agostino Carracci
(1557–1602) produced a group of plates known as the ‘Lascivie’,
which included two biblical and six mythological subjects as well
as five ‘unspecific satyr stories’. A previous author,
Malvasia, suggested that Agostino’s great success was due to
these erotic prints, and that his printer/dealer was motivated by
financial gain. Venice, however, did not encourage erotica ‘discouraging
indecent images’.8
The period covered by this exhibition (1550–1620) saw a number
of outstanding printmakers working in Italy: Carracci, Federico
Barocci, Cornelis Cort, Aegidius Sadeler and Francesco Villamena.
With the arrival from the Low Countries of Cort and Sadeler, for
example, Italy became a lively and international centre for printmaking.
The range and quality of work was extraordinary. Michael Bury’s
catalogue The Print in Italy 1550–1620 is the only survey
of this period in any language, and draws upon a remarkable range
of hitherto unpublished and unexplored material. This is a splendid
exhibition and a fine, scholarly study and presentation of detailed
and fascinating material; both visual and documentary.
Footnotes:
1. Bury, M. The Print in Italy, 1550–1620. London:
The British Museum Press, 2001: 9.
2. Ibid, p.10
3. Ibid, p.11
4. Ibid, p.68
5. Ibid, p.21
6. Ibid, p.70
7. Ibid, p. 54
8. Ibid, p.198
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